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 * "Flowers of Edo: Eighteenth-Century Kabuki and Its Patrons.** By C. Andrew Gerstle. __Asian Theatre Journal__, Spring 1987. 4.1. pp .52-75

This journal entry espouses clarification of distinctions between eighteenth-century kabuki contra its contemporary Tokyo presentation. Today's kabuki is noted for its reverent nature - its theatre house situated against the Supreme Court, a fine Japanese art, of highly regarded dignity, a refined and delicate expression. C. Andrew Gerstle elaborately contrasts Tokyo's (formerly known as Edo) conservative kabuki drama against its extremely dynamic past. It is shown that kabuki of the eighteenth century demonstrated a brash means of escapist entertainment in not only constituting great performance art, but, in fact, inspiring the entire realm of Edo (Tokyo) society, politically, socially, culturally, and economically.

Prior to government issued reform of 1890, Edo Kabuki was a very popular, yet very taboo aft form. Whereas contemporary kabuki performers are now held as honorable professionals, such was not the case in eighteenth century Tokyo Kabuki; over the course of the eighteenth century, Kabuki actors' status underwent transformations (correlate to its growing popularity's steady transcendence of class boundaries) from being socially classified as unto prostitutes to being seen as god-reminiscent heroes. The theatre house was not in the center of the seat of government buildings as it is now - it was located in the pleasure quarters, which, especially upon the backdrop of stringent Confucian ideals of morality, was also regarded as an evil place by many (lit. 'chikusho' : Buddhist realm of beasts). The article suggests that the venturing into the forbidden to witness Kabuki drama added to its excitement.

Author Andrew Gerstle gives an account of how modern kabuki is encroached with ''ritualistic formality, lack of action, and grandiose exaggerations of the hero...( in which) almost nothing happens"'; furthermore, the author notes that contemporary kabuki starts and ends with the performance itself. In eighteenth-century Edo, kabuki was a vibrant ongoing festival of sorts filled with "rough-style acting, Toraya yokan sweets, and katobushi singing". The eighteenth century kabuki theatre house brought the lives and streets of Edo into the theatre house: Class structure entered; "low class entrances differed from those for grand lords (daimyo)." Food and beverage was readily available for consumption during performances. And, the social context of the immediate city governed the theme of the Kabuki drama performed; for Edoites, situated in Japan's seat of government, the theme was "aragoto" which was outlandish lampoons of samurai.

It was the defining "defiance again samurai", so festively and comedicly presented, that rendered Edo kabuki an escapist art, and everyone in Edo society, save the majority of the most conservative tier of Tokyo government (bakufu), grew to love it. The actors acquired fame: they were brandnames on many products such as makeup, fabric prints, and candy. Respected as true artisans, Kabuki performers were often appreciated as poets as well, great crafters of literary works. The main spearhead of the actual Kabuki performances in any given time/era is called "Ichikawa Danjuro" and the "flower of Edo"; Danjuros of the eighteenth century were seen as gods, to wit, remembrances of the god Fudo (a god known to scatter away evil by the ferocity of facial expression). Despite the aragato/anti-samurai nature of eighteenth century Edo Kabuki, Danjuros made their ways into the homes of top government officials, some daimyo even going so far as to construct in-house kabuki theatres, recruiting courtesans for performers. But, such acceptance by government officials of the yet taboo artform, as well the growing popularity among the samurai themselves towards the distinct kabuki singing, was frowned upon and eventually dispelled by 1890 reform.

The author brings to the table the question of the nature of the aragato style, its proper classification (good or bad) and the possibility that at best, eighteenth century kabuki witnessed a hardly understood respect and impetus of recognition to the samurai class. The reader is reminded that although disrespectful in dramatic performance, aragato compelled the audience to consider the life of the samurai - " The role of the samurai class in Edo kabuki's development...should not be forgotten." Whatever the case, whether morally good or bad, the article presents that was is seen today in Tokyo is a far cry from so much that went on, in and about, eighteenth-century kabuki.

Elicia Jones University of Georgia Theatre 4400, Dr. Richmond Spring 2011