Kerala+Culture+and+Society-+Mandi+Montgomery

=Setting the Scene of India=

__Early Times in India__
 Finally, the southwest monsoon breaks. Rain begins like an explosion, lasting from June to September. The farmers rejoice, for the rain brings to life the crops they have planted. During the winter monsoons, which are dry, the wind blows from the opposite direction. Crops are planted again in October in preparation for the winter monsoon. The triangular peninsula known as the Indian subcontinent contains the modern nations of India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. This subcontinent is nearly half the size of the United States. Within it are many landforms and extremes of weather. Two mountain ranges, the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush, separate the subcontinent from the rest of Asia. The climate is tropical in the southern part of the subcontinent. The central area of the subcontinent is a vast plateau; much of the land is known as the Deccan Plateau. West of the peninsula is the Arabian Sea;east of it the Bay of Bengal. Both are part of the Indian Ocean. Melting snow from the Himalayas is the source of India's three largest rivers. The name India comes from the Indus River in the northwest. In the northeast, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. Around 8% of India's waterways are found in Kerala. The earliest Indian civilization in the Indus Valley flourished 4,500 years ago. Two of its major cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The residents made bronze tools and built their houses with baked mud bricks. These people were among the first to wear cotton clothes. They invented a form of writing, but no one can read it today. Seals with Indus Valley writing have been found in cities of Mesopotamia, which tells us that the people of these regions traded with one another. The Indus Valley people has many things to use for trade. They made jewelry that both men and women wore. Officials wore gold armbands and headbands. Women donned bracelets, anklets, necklaces, beaded belts, and fancy hair-combs or pins.Potters made cooking utensils, as well as writing sicks, statues, back scratchers, dice and game pieces. In contrast to the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, which grew in a haphazard fashion, Indus cities has streets laid out in a rectangular grid. All the houses looked alike. Even the size of the bricks was the same. Archaeologists have found no large palaces or temples in the cities. Homes in the Indus Valley had indoor wells and plumbing. Residents could draw water from the wells and shower by pouring it over their bodies. Sloped floors took the water to drain. Sewers and drainpipes ran under the city streets. The people of Indus Valley cities had a highly developed way of life. They even made clay toys, such as these, for their children.But around 1750 B.C. civilization underwent a series of crises in Indus Valley. The people first crowded into and then abandoned the cities. No one knows why. Scholars now believe that it might have been a natural disaster such as a flood, or a change in climate.  At about the same time, nomadic peoples came through the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush and into the Indus Valley. THey called themselves Aryans, The spoke Vedic, from which Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, and other Indian languages developed. The Aryans used horses to pull their fast chariots, giving themselves an advantage in warfare. Soon the Aryans dominated the region. Thesse early tribes built no monuments or cities. The Aryans valued land, which they needed for cows, sheep and goats. As time went on, they began to farm. They were among the first people to grow sugar cane. By about 600 B.C. the Aryans had spread east to the Ganges River Valley and south into the Deccan Plateau. States were formed, and cities appeared once again. The Aryans held religious beliefs that would influence all of Asia. Their religious poems and hymns were passed on by word of mouth for centuries. After writing developed, the verses were collected into books called Vedas, and name that means knowledge. The oldest and most important of the Vedas is the Rig-Veda. About 1/3 of its hymns are addressed to Indra, the chief god. Much of what we know of the people of that time comes from what we have learned from Vedas.  Over time, priests became almost as powerful as the rulers because priests knew how to perform long religious ceremonies correctly. The people believed that these ceremonies were necessary to please the gods. The priests' power was increased by the division of society into four mythical classes. According to the Rig-Veda, these classes came from different parts of a being who sacrificed himself to create the world. Brahmans, or priests, came from his mouth. Kshatriya, or warriors, came from his shoulders. Vaishya, or traders and land owners, came from his thighs; and Sudra, or peasants came from his feet. In time, many castes appeared. Among them were the untouchable castes. People in these castes did the most lowly work in Indian society. Brahmans regarded the untouchable castes as impure and would not perform ceremonies for them. Some people rejected the Brahmans' claim the be the main spiritual leaders. Such people would often leave their homes and wander from place to place, trying to find the meaning of life. Among them were Siddhartha Gautama, who became Buddha, and Mahavira, the founder of Jainism.  Southern India was not invaded by the Aryans. There was a considerable amount of trade with Greece and Rome. Sometimes travelers commented on the wealth of the country's seaports and the power in its women. Although the Aryans did not reach that far into the south, their religious beliefs did. These ideas were blended with beliefs in other gods and goddesses.  Three empires- the Maurya, the Gupta, and the Chola- developed in ancient India. When Alexander the Great entered India in 327 B.C., there were many kingdoms. The most powerful was Magadha, on the Ganges River Plain. A young Prince, Chandeagupta Maurya, united the Indian kingdoms and founded the Mauryan dynasty. Within 5 years of Alexander's invasion, Chandragupta had conqured the Magadha kingdom. In only three more years, he subdued the Indus Valley and the rest of northern India. His son became the ruler and led troops into the Deccan Plateau, adding most of southern India to his domain. The empire reachedits full extent in the reign of Asoka. In the Mauryan capital, multistory houses rose high on the riverbanks. The wealthy used golden bowls and wore clothing with golden threads. Perhaps 50 million people with different languages, religions, and customs lived in the empire. Asoka was a wise ruler as well as a conqueror. It wasn't until modern times that so much of India was ruled by one government. After Asoka's death, his sons fought each other for the throne. In the disorder, areas began to break off from the empire. in 184 B.C. the last Maurya king was assassinated by the commander of his own army.  India remained divided into many kingdoms until about A.D. 320. Then a man who called himself Chandra Gupta founded a new eimpire. The Gupta dynasty, which lasted for 200 years, marked a high point in India culture. India's two largest Sanskrit epic poems, the Mahanharata and the Ramayana, probably took their final written from during this period. Mahabjarata, which means "great story", is among the longest poems ever written. it tell sof the struggle between rival families to rule a kingdom in northern India. Artists were inspired by the story and painted scenes from it. A collection of animal fables, the Panchatantra, was also written down during the Gupta era. Gupta artists and sculptors glorified India's religion. Indian's also excelled in science and medicine. In Gupta universities, mathematicians developed a number system with a decimal point and a zero. The Arabs later learned this system from the Indians. What are called Arabic numerals today are really Indian numerals.  Kings of the Chola dynasty ruled parts of Southern India, beginning about 100 A.D.According to legend, Karikalan Chola, the first ruler, took the tiger as a symbol of his dynasty. About 750 years later, the Chola made up one of only 3 large kingdoms in the south. But a series of Chola warrior kings conqured the other tow. By the reign of Rajaraja, beginning in 985, the Chola controlled all of southern India. Under his son, Rajendra, the kingdom grew even larger. Chola kings were Hindus who used their wealth to build temples. But there was also time for games. A favorite pastime was chess. Scholars believe the game originated in India during this period. At first it had four players, and dice were thrown to determined who moved.
 * ===Land of the Monsoon ===
 * ===Kalidasa, India's greatest playwright, wrote, "The wind is an angry fan, and the world is a furnace." He was referring to the hot monsoon winds that blow across India every April and May, bringing heat so intense that the air seems to ripple. Land dries, people and animals lose energy and plants wilt.===
 * ===A Lost Civilization ===
 * === · The First City Planners ===
 * === · New Comers from the Northwest ===
 * === · A Priestly Class ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Southern India ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">A Mighty Expansion- The Mauryan Empire[[image:http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/MAURYA.GIF width="249" height="200"]] ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">A High Point- the Gupta Empire[[image:http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/willow/history-of-india1.gif width="221" height="210"]] ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">A Dynasty of Tigers- The Chola [[image:http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/658.ht2.gif width="178" height="162"]] ===

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">__Religions of India__
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Hinduism is the oldest of the major religions of India. It has no single founder. The word Hindu means "an inhabitant of India". Over time, the religions has developed from the traditions of the many people who live in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism began with people who referred to themselves as Aryans. Hinus often say that Hinduism is a way of life, not just a set of religious beliefs. Hindus worship God in many forms, such as: The Mother Goddess, wife of Shiva, is known as Parvati, Mahadevi, and other names. The Rig-Veda says: "Truth is one, though the sages call it by different names." Another basic idea of Hinduism is reincarnation. This is the belief that the soul of every person has lived from the beginning of time in the bodies of humans and animals. A persons condition in life is determined by his or her karma, or the actions he or she took in this and previous lives. In Hinduism, the goal of a religious person is to end the cycle of rebirth., reaching perfection and blending with the soul of the universe. Usually each village has several gods and goddesses whose statues are in local temples. There are also gods that each family worships. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Around 500 B.C. a prince, Siddhartha Gautama, set out to learn why people suffer. For years he wandered as a beggar, practicing self denial. He ate very little, and one day realized that self-denial was not helping him towards his goal. Siddhartha sat down under a tree and stayed there until he found a way to end people's sufferings. From that time on, he was known as Buddha, the enlightened one. He spent the rest of his years teaching others how to find enlightenment. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Muslim merchants settled in Kerala by the 8th century A.D and introduced Islam. Historians suggest that Islam had reached Kerala during the period of Muhammad himself Arabian traders who visited Kerala spread it, and they maintained a healthy relationship with the local people. As trade and commerce between Kerala and Arabia flourished and many traders settled down in Kerala, and their interaction with the local population helped Islam taking its roots on the southwestern Indian coast of Kerala.
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The Hindu Religion ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The Teachings of Buddha ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Islam Presence in Kerala ===

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">__Worship, Work and Play__
In India, people learn the essential themes of cultural life within the bosom of a family. In most of the country, the basic units of society are the patrilineal family unit and wider kinship groupings. The most widely desired residential unit is the joint family, ideally consisting of three or four patrilineally related generations, all living under one roof, working, eating, worshiping, and cooperating together in mutually beneficial social and economic activities. Patrilineal joint families include men related through the male line, along with their wives and children. Most young women expect to live with their husband's relatives after marriage, but they retain important bonds with their natal families. Despite the continuous and growing impact of urbanization, secularization, and Westernization, the traditional joint household, both in ideal and in practice, remains the primary social force in the lives of most Indians. Loyalty to family is a deeply held ideal for almost everyone. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The day's work starts early. When the weather is hot, everyone gets up when it is still dark. The men want to do much of the farm work before the sun rises. The first thing to do is to take a quick bath in cold water. Then, breakfast. There really are no strict meal times, and family members may eat when they feel like it. Usually meals consist of buttermilk, wheat bread or rice, lentils and vegetables. Hindu families do not eat beef, as the cow is sacred in India. Occasionally there will be fish, chicken, lamb, or goat.
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Your Family ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Day Begins ===

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Members of your family may go to the village temple and ask a favor from a god or goddess there. The priest, or Brahman, rings a bell at the door of the temple to summon the attention of the god or goddess. People worship the statue that the god or goddess lives in. The priests regularly bathe and dress it. Villagers bring gifts to the temple, they may be flowers or food. Sometimes the priests carry the statue around the temple while they play music and chant hymns.During most of the day, villagers work. They plant and harvest crops. They cut down trees to prepare new farmland, dig irrigation ditches, and keep the roads in good condition. Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income. They must also repair the fences that surround the village and the fields. Bengal Tigers, Indian Leopards and King Cobras and many other wild animals inhabit Kerala lands. Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Life is not all hard work for families. There are many festivals and celebrations during the year that provide a break from everyday routine. During these festivals, caste rules are less strict. Streets are thronged with people who have come for the merrymaking and dancing. Flags and banners decorate the buildings, and people carry colorful parasols for shade from the blazing son. Merchants offer sweet cakes, garlands of flowers, jewelry, silk cloth, and betel leaves for chewing. The local theater is about to start its production. A candle is lit and the music begins. The play is part four of Nala Caritam Attakatha. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The play/ dance begins with brightly colored costumed dancers. Pictured is a Kathakali performance of act IV of Nala Caritam. Damayanti (not pictured) has asked her servant to inquire about her husband's location. Together the princess Damayanti and her servant plot a scheme to retrieve her husband. He left to prevent her from being affected by his bad luck.In his absence, she misses him and thinks he will return if she announces that she will remarry. Nala returns and she is able to pick him out from the meal he cooks. In the end, he forgives her for "trying" to remarry, and she forgives him for leaving. Most audiences know this ending having heard it from family members' retelling.
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Your Village ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Seasonal Festivities ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Kathakali of Kerela[[image:http://periyarholidays.com/image/KATHAKALI2.gif width="236" height="154" caption="Bhima and Nala" link="@http://www.artindia.net/kathakali.html"]] ===

Kerela was able to maintain the level of integrity that is revered today due to isolation. The city became isolated and closed off and subsequently the plays/ dance dramas remained intact. For this reason the plays maintain integrity and tradition.

References: http://www.indianchild.com/indian_family_structure.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damayanti http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islahi_Movement_in_Kerala http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Ancient/Indus2.html http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/rig_veda.html